We meet and worship, just like the Early Church did, in our homes...

For the Early Church, the most common and natural place where Christians gathered to meet and to offer worship was not in dedicated buildings, but in their own homes.  The first mention of a house church is St. Paul the Apostle's greeting in Romans 16:3-5 to Prisca and Aquila, in which he also "greet[s] the church that is in their house". The Gospel of St. Mark tells of visits to the home of Ss. Peter and Andrew, where Christ taught the apostles privately. In the fourth century, the pilgrim Egeria described her visit to Peter's house, noting that the house of the "prince of the apostles" had been turned into a church.

St Cuthman's Old Catholic Mission likewise follows this ancient Apostolic tradition.  The "source and summit" of our life and spirituality, the Mass, is celebrated daily in the home of our Parish Priest (Domus Ecclesia) and prayer and study group meetings take place in the homes of our members.

In the same way that other Christians contribute to the beauty of their buildings to enhance their worship, so our members also contribute flowers, candles, vestments, Altar linen etc and not just our members but also those who watch the Daily Mass online.  Unlike other "house groups" the way we worship is not at all different from that you might expect to find in a church building.  Those who worship with us are both surprised and delighted that the customs and externals of the liturgy one would expect to find in a church are deliberately and precisely followed in our homes.

On Mondays, as well as the Daily Mass at Domus Ecclesia, we also offer worship at Dorset Gardens Methodist Church.  Whether at Domus Ecclesia or at Dorset Gardens, all are MOST welcome to come along and join us in the worship of Almighty God.

The Catholic Apostolic National Church &
The Catholic Apostolic Church in Europe

The Catholic Apostolic Church in Europe (CACE) was formerly The Old Catholic Church in Europe (OCCE). The Church has Apostolic Succession from both the Old Catholic and Roman Catholic traditions.

The CACE is a Christian Church dedicated to the proclamation of the "Good News" (Gospel) of Jesus Christ. It is a worshipping community, a family of believers and a fellowship of persons living in charity and the love of Christ.

The CACE is a recognised Church enjoying fellowship with the Universal Church internationally through the International Council of Community Churches, the World Council of Churches and various other international ecumenical bodies and is related through Apostolic Succession to the Catholic Churches of the East and West (Orthodox and Roman Catholic).

The CACE is a daughter Church of the Catholic Apostolic National Church [Inc USA] and as such is part of the wider CANC tradition in the United States with origins in Brazil with the Roman Catholic, Bishop Duarte Costa. After amicable and fraternal conversation the Curia of both the parent and daughter Churches effectively joined themselves to each other.

Each local church  continues to maintain their respective Codes of Canon Law proper to the church whilst becoming one church.  The whole Church has a presence on every Continent of the world with member Churches including CANC Philippines and CANC Zambia.

Our History…Our Future

Who We Are…

The Catholic Apostolic National Church is an international, autocephalous community of Christians committed to Jesus Christ. We accept and believe the testimony of His Apostles, eyewitnesses of His life, death and resurrection from among the dead. They passed on, to succeeding generations, their own testimony about Jesus Christ and His life. By the proclaiming of His Gospel, and the giving of their own testimony (called the Apostolic Tradition), the Church, which the Lord instituted, was built up. The Catholic Apostolic National Church is a historic part of the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. We strive to faithfully echo forward the Faith, transmitted to us in both Holy Tradition and Sacred Scripture.

The Ancient Catholic Church of the Netherlands…

The area of Europe known as the Low Countries was missionized by St. Willibrord in the Seventh Century firmly establishing the Catholic Faith and Tradition in the Netherlands and other countries in that region. Early on, three principal dioceses were established in the cities of Utrecht, Deventer and Haarlem to administer the affairs of the Church in the territory. Utrecht eventually became the archiepiscopal see with supervision over Deventer and Haarlem. Assenting to a petition made by the Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III and Bishop Heribert of Utrecht, Blessed Pope Eugene III, in 1145 A.D. granted the Cathedral Chapter of Utrecht the right to elect successors to the See in times of vacancy. This privilege was confirmed by the fourth Council of the Laterian in 1215. The autonomous character of the Ancient Catholic Church in the Netherlands was further demonstrated when a second grant by Pope Leo X, Debitum Pastoralis, conceded to Philip of Burgundy, 57th Bishop of Utrecht, that neither he nor his successors, nor any of their clergy or laity, should ever, in the first instance, have his cause evoked to any external tribunal, not even under pretense of any apostolic letters whatever; and that all such proceedings should be, ipso facto, null and void. This papal concession, in 1520, was of the greatest importance in defense of the rights of the Church.

The Church in the Netherlands and the Reformation…

Armed with the protection of the papal concessions, the Church in the Netherlands continued to minister even through the Reformation. During this period of strife, the Church in the Netherlands, as in many other countries, was forced to "go underground" in order to survive. But survive and remain extant, it did. Eventually, the Archbishop of Utrecht and other Church leaders reached an informal agreement with the civil government, whereby it could again function openly without interference from the Reformers. The Archbishop of Utrecht and the Dutch Catholic Church, being used to a more austere form of worship and being Catholics at peril, sympathized with members of the European Jansenist Catholic movement, and incurred the wrath of the Jesuits as a result. "Jansenism" was a movement within the Roman Catholic Church that preferred a rigorous piety on Catholic expression, acceptance of predestination, and an emphasis on the sinfulness of man. The underlying theology that Jansenism was based upon, was the work "Augustinus", written by Bishop of Ypres, Cornelius Jansen. Jansen wrote his work based upon an intense study of the theology of St. Augustine of Hippo and entrusted his writings to trusted friends to be published after his death. The extreme expression of his work was termed "Jansenism". "Jansenism" was condemned as heresy ("Cum occasione" (31 May, 1653)), and members of the Church were required to sign an affirmation of a formulary containing heretical points, called the five propositions, that were claimed to have been in the work "Augustinus", but in fact were not. This caused a rejection of the formulary by "Jansenists", based upon the inconsistency of the facts, and by others who had not read the work in question. Pope Clement XI issued the bull Unigenitus condemning 101 propositions in a treatise by another French Jansenist, Pasquier Quesnel (1634 - 1719). The Old Roman Catholic Diocese of Utrecht, along with Haarlem and Deventer, became separated from the Roman Catholic communion as a result of giving sanctuary to the Jansenists, and for refusing to give up the right to freely elect Episcopal successors and functioned as a separate Catholic communion.

The Move from Isolation…

Following the First Vatican Council in 1870 (at which the hierarchy of the Church of Holland were refused admittance), a considerable dissent among Catholics, especially in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, arose over the dogma of papal infallibility. The dissenters, while holding the Church in General Council to be infallible, could not accept the proposition that the Pope, acting alone, in matters of faith and morals is infallible. Many formed independent communities that came to be known as Old Catholic. They are called Old Catholics because they sought to adhere to the beliefs and practices of the Catholic Church of the post-Apostolic era. The Old Catholic communities appealed to the Archbishop of Utrecht who consecrated the first bishops for these communities. Eventually, under the leadership of the Church of Holland, these Old Catholic communities joined together to form the Utrecht Union of Churches. The Utrecht Union of Churches approbated, in 1908, the establishment of a mission in Great Britain. Archbishop Gerardus Gul of Utrecht consecrated Father Arnold Harris Matthew, a resigned Roman Catholic priest, Regionary Bishop for England. It was Bishop Mathew's charge to minister among Anglo-Catholics and Roman Catholics impeded from full participation in the life and sacraments of the Church. Toward this end, Bishop Mathew consecrated Austrian nobleman, Prince Rudolph Edward de Landes Berghes, in 1913 for work in Scotland. Prince Rudolph (1873-1920) left England for the United States at the onset of World War I.

In the United States…

Bishop de Landes Berghes, in spite of great difficulty and isolation from the Utrecht Union of Churches, due to Bishop Mathew withdrawing from the Union, was able to plant the roots of an independent expression of Catholicism in America. He elevated to the episcopacy two priests, Carmel Henry Carfora and William Francis Brothers. Each of these bishops, in his own manner, continued the mission begun by Bishop de Landes Berghes. With the passing of these original organizers from the ecclesiastical scene, the Old Catholic Church in the United States has evolved from a fairly centralized administration with structured oversight of ministry to a local and regional model of administration with self-governing dioceses and provinces more closely following St. Ignatius of Antioch's concepts of the Church as a communion of communities each laboring together to proclaim the message of the Gospel.

Another Old Catholic priest, Fr. Joseph Renee Vilatte, began his ministry in Wisconsin, which led to the establishment of Old Catholic familial lines making us brothers and sisters to the Oriental Orthodox Churches in Middle East. Fr. Vilatte ultimately became Bishop Vilatte, consecrated bishop under the authority of Mar Ignatius Peter III, Patriarch of Antioch, of the Syrian Orthodox Church. He was consecrated a bishop by Mar Julius, Metropolitan of the Independent Catholic Church of Ceylon, Goa and India, who was assisted by Mar Paul Athanasius, Bishop of Kottayam and Mar Gregorius Geevargheese, Bishop of Niranam (who was later canonized as a Saint by the Malankaran Orthodox Syrian Church of India). He then returned to the United States, where his Episcopal lines would stand alongside those of Bishop Mathew, in securing valid lines of Apostolic Succession, both of which the Catholic Apostolic National Church share.

Old Catholic or Old Roman Catholic…

Old Catholic and Old Roman Catholic are terms used to identify Old Catholic churches and parishes in the United States who are not necessarily affiliated with ethnic Old Catholic communities such as the Polish National Catholic Church. The original diocese established by the late Archbishop Carfora in the 1920's in Chicago was called the Old Roman Catholic Diocese in the United States. Because of this, nearly all of our Catholic communities are called "Old Catholic" or "Old Roman Catholic".

What Old Catholics Believe…

The faith of Old Catholics is simply that of the Catholic Church as taught by the Church from apostolic times to the present day. The ecumenical Councils clearly express what Old Catholics believe without the need for apology or excuse. In 1823, Archbishop Willibrord van Os of Utrecht reiterated adherence to the unchanging doctrine of Catholicism in the following words: "We accept without any exception whatever, all the Articles of the Holy Catholic Faith. We will never hold nor teach, now or afterwards, any other opinions than those that have been decreed, determined and published by our Mother, Holy Church..." Thus, Old Catholics, tracing their Apostolic Succession through the Roman Catholic Church to the Apostles, participated in the full sacramental ministry of the Church. The Rule of Faith of Old Catholics is faithful adherence to Sacred Scripture and the Apostolic Tradition.

How Do They Differ?

In matters of discipline, administration and procedure, Old Catholics differ from the Roman Catholic Church. For example, clerical celibacy (which is a matter of discipline) is optional among Old Catholics. Married men may be ordained and in many of our dioceses clergy may, with prior Episcopal consent, enter into Holy Matrimony after ordination. Liturgical expression is also a matter of discipline determined by the local bishop. Consequently, many Old Catholic communities have adopted the liturgical renewal promulgated following the Second Vatican Council while still maintaining Tridentine liturgy, in Latin or direct translation into classical or modern English, in those parishes that desire it. Eastern rite Old Catholic parishes exist as well, which follow the ancient liturgies of that rich tradition. Because Old Catholic communities are small, they are able to success fully implement the Ignatian model of the Church referred to earlier. This concept views the faithful with their clergy and bishop as a community or family in loving concern for each other and each working together to live the Scriptural commands in their daily lives as Christians bringing the love of Christ to others. Old Catholic communities utilize their size and lack of highly detailed structure to the very best advantage organizationally by their ability to expedite decisions affecting the sacramental and community life of the faithful, within the revelation and authority of Holy Scripture and Apostolic Tradition.

The Birth of the Catholic Apostolic National Church of Brazil…

Bishop Carlos Duarte Costa was consecrated as the Roman Catholic Diocesan Bishop of Botucatu, Brazil, on December 8, 1924, functioning as such uneventfully, until certain concerns he expressed about collaboration with Nazi War criminal in World War II, the inequitable distribution of wealth in the country, and the terrible treatment of the Brazil's poor, by both the civil government and the Roman Catholic Church in Brazil, caused his removal from the Diocese of Botucatu. In the 1930s Bishop Costa was the most outspoken Brazilian bishop in defending the poor. In 1937, at the insistence of the dictatorial Getúlio Vargas régime in Brazil, the Vatican forced Bishop Costa to retire as Bishop of Botucatu, and he was appointed as Titular Bishop of Maura. Nonetheless, he continued in speaking out on behalf of the poor and, in 1944, was even imprisoned for several months, but his resolve did not falter. He was branded a communist, which of course he was not, and he did not quit. Finally, in 1945, after protesting the Vatican's having assisted several Nazis and Nazi sympathizers find refuge in Brazil, Bishop Costa broke with Rome.

Bishop Carlos Duarte Costa went on to found the “Igreja Catolica Apostolica Brasileira” (ICAB), a church which spawned a movement of Catholic Apostolic National Churches around the world. Bishop Carlos Duarte Costa fell asleep in the Lord, on March 26, 1967, after service to the people for over forty-two years as bishop. He is revered by the Brazilian Church and her daughter churches around the world, including this church, as “St. Carlos of Brazil”.

The Brazilian Church suffered much persecution at the hands of hostile governments, tyrants and, unfortunately, even fellow Christians. Many of the early deacons, priests and bishops were persecuted for many, many years, and many are alive today, giving their accounts of arrest, imprisonment and even torture. The grey cassocks and soutanes worn by clergy, a result of that early persecution, are now worn as a symbol of honor, in faithfulness and steadfastness, as modern-day confessors of the faith. The dedication, courage and love of service to Christ, through service to His people, of “St. Carlos of Brazil” are part of the Catholic Apostolic National Church, as are his lines of Apostolic Succession.

What The Catholic Apostolic National Church Professes…

The faith of the Catholic Apostolic National Church is simply that as taught by the Church from Apostolic times to the present day. The Oecumenical Councils clearly express what we believe without the need for apology or excuse.  We affirm the ancient creeds of faith, the “Athanasian Creed”, the “Apostles’ Creed” and the “Nicene Creed”. Thus, we, tracing our Apostolic Succession through the ancient churches back to the Apostles, participate in the full sacramental ministry. The Rule of Faith of the Catholic Apostolic National Church is faithful adherence to Sacred Scripture and Apostolic Tradition, as protected by the teaching Magisterium of the Church.

How Do We, As Catholics, Differ From Roman Catholics?

In matters of discipline, administration and procedure, we differ from the Roman Catholic Church. For example, clerical celibacy (which is a matter of discipline) is optional in the Catholic Apostolic National Church. Married men may be ordained, as in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and in many of our dioceses clergy may, with prior Episcopal consent, enter into Holy Matrimony after ordination. Liturgical expression is also a matter of discipline determined by the local bishop. Consequently, many communities have adopted the liturgical renewal promulgated following the Second Vatican Council while still maintaining Tridentine liturgy, in Latin or direct translation into classical or modern English, in those parishes that desire it. Eastern Rite parishes exist as well, which follow the ancient liturgies of that rich tradition. Because communities are small, they are able to success fully implement the Ignatian model of the Church referred to earlier. This concept views the faithful with their clergy and bishop as a community or family in loving concern for each other and each working together to live the Scriptural commands in their daily lives as Christians bringing the love of Christ to others. The communities utilize their size and lack of highly detailed structure to the very best advantage organizationally by their ability to expedite decisions affecting the sacramental and community life of the faithful, within the revelation and authority of Holy Scripture and Apostolic Tradition.

Other Distinctions…

There are other differences by which Catholic Apostolic National Church communities are differentiated from Roman Catholic parishes. The matter of papal infallibility defined by Vatican Council I is a non-issue for us, since we are not under papal jurisdiction. All Catholic Apostolic National Church communities accord the Holy Father that respect due him as Successor of St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles and Patriarch of the West. We likewise respect the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Patriarch of the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch. We adhere to the teaching from apostolic times that the Church in General Council is infallible. Our theology recognizes that the Church's teaching magisterium has no less than two objects: the formation of conscience, in which case authority has an instructive quality; and the nurturing of a properly formed conscience to full maturity, in which case authority is guiding and directive.

The Catholic Apostolic National Church…

Originally founded in 1982 as the “Apostolic Catholic Church” under Archbishop Shelby Smith, in Nashua, New Hampshire, the church began her mission ministering mainly to those in hospitals and hospice care. As word of the church’s compassionate care to all in need grew, so did the church. Archbishop Smith carefully grew the church, choosing only tested and trusted men for ordination, and dutifully training them for their mission. In 1995, while engaged in establishing new parishes in the Midwest, Archbishop Smith fell asleep in the Lord.

Elected by the church to succeed him, Rev. Fr. Robert M. Gubala was chosen from among the clergy to succeed Archbishop Smith, and was consecrated to the Holy Episcopate on October 19, 1997 in O’Fallon, in St. Louis County, Missouri. Seeking to ensure that the Church remained faithful to its Old Catholic theology and identity, in December 1999, the Church was re-organized as the “Old Catholic Church of the United States”. The CANC went on to establish a province called at that time, the English Catholic Church (ECC), and consecrating the Most Reverend Robert McBride as her first Archbishop. The ECC would continue on, to become the Catholic Apostolic Church of Europe (UK), the European Province of the CANC.

The CANC became acquainted with the Brazilian Church (ICAB), due to the common apostolic succession, and began a dialogue. As a result of that dialogue, the Old Catholic Church of the United States was invited by ICAB to synod. Archbishop Gubala sent, as an emissary of the church, Bishop Andre Queen. As a result of ongoing communication and the discussions at synod, a strong relationship was developed between the two churches, under the auspices of Dom Luis Fernando Castillo-Mendez.  During this same period, there was an increase in small groups, all claiming to be Old Catholic, yet espousing theologies that contradict fundamental Catholic theology. In addition, the Utrecht Union had been steadily moving towards a theological expression that also was not compatible with the original theology of the “Old Roman Catholic Diocese of Utrecht”, circa 1724 A.D., and also alienated its Roman Catholic counterparts. The church found itself concerned about the identity and meaning of “Old Catholic”, as it changed dramatically, and seemed less and less to accurately identify the theological position of the church. In recognition of this Church’s strict adherence to the faith and familial lines of succession with the “Igreja Catolica Apostolica Brasileira” (ICAB), the church decided to change the name of the church to better reflect our traditional, conservative Old Catholic faith and values. In August of 2005 the church changed its name, from the “Old Catholic Church of the United States”, to the “Catholic Apostolic National Church”.  Although the name of the church changed, our faith remained the same, and stayed true to Sacred Scripture and Apostolic Tradition.

Throughout our journey forward, we have grown, with provinces in Africa and Asia as well. In addition, we have made many friends in our walk of faith, and established communion with like-minded churches. We also seek to work towards fruitful dialogue, and are in early stages of dialogue with our brethren in the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Apostolic National Church today, is an international, self-governing church that is growing worldwide.

The church welcomes those individuals who have broken ties over the years, back into our family of faith. Our church’s official catechism, “Credo”, offers a solid, understandable explanation of our faith and practices. Our history is rooted in solid practice and orthodox doctrine.

The Old Catholic Church in Europe is a "Catholic" church, meaning that you will find very few differences between what we believe and what other Catholic Churches such as Roman/Orthodox Catholics believe.

We have much in our history and beliefs that we share in common with other Christians;

• that Jesus Christ was/is the Son of God
• that the Bible is the inspired Word of God
• and that Christianity is the way God wants us to live our lives.

But being in the Catholic tradition we also believe;

• that in the Mass the bread and the wine become the physical and spiritual presence of Christ
• that Christ still comforts His people and shares His life with us through the Church in the Sacraments of Baptism (administered by water in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit), Confirmation (anointing and reception of the Holy Spirit confirming Faith), Matrimony (union between a man and a woman before God), Holy Orders (the implanting of the Holy Spirit upon deacons, priests and bishops), the Holy Eucharist (reception of the Holy Communion), Absolution (confession and penance) and Extreme Unction (confession, anointing and reception of the Holy Communion administered to the dying)
• that Christ gave His authority from God to teach, heal and forgive to the Apostles and from them to the Bishops which authority Priests share
• that a true and meaningful relationship with God involves admission of our sins, true repentance and a dedicated resolve not to sin again
• and that the sacrificing of our own desire to do His will and obey His commandments is the correct way to live our earthly existence.

However, all this is believed, expressed and taught by us in a compassionate way, accepting the frailty of the human condition, its weaknesses, its instincts but then encouraging our ability as humans to feel and think and believe with our "hearts and minds".

Paramount to the expression of the Christian faith as Catholics is adherence to the summary of God's law that Christ taught His followers;

"The first commandment is this: '... the Lord our God is the only Lord. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength.

The second is this: 'Love your neighbour as yourself.' There is no other commandment greater than these. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets."

Futher information about how this Faith is lived and taught by our Church is available on this website, please feel free to search and to read more!

The Old Catholic Church in Europe believes that the worship (giving honour) of Almighty God should be offered to the best of our abiliites and resources and in a true spirit of adoration, praise and thanksgiving. The following describe our worship and how to behave...

As a Catholic Church the most frequent offering of our worship is the Mass but all other forms of devotion and service are regularly offered too including, Benediction (meditation in front of and blessing by the Holy Sacrament), the Liturgy of the Hours (Mattins/Vespers, morning and evening prayer) and Healing Services (anointing of the sick) as well as Baptisms, Marriages, Funerals etc.

Our worship is generally expressed in traditional style, Latin and "old fashioned" English (Thee and Thou) is used deliberately to reflect that our worship is addressed to God - not solely for the benefit of those listening. The traditional rite of Mass (the Tridentine or English Missal translation) is predominantly used. However the modern rite of Mass (Paul VI Missal) is also used by some priests and parishes in modern language but celebrated reverently.

The Liturgy (form of worship) of our Church is an holistic attempt to engage the whole person in the act of worship; bells, incense, music, candles, vestments are all employed to engage the senses; traditional language or Latin to engage the mind and spiritually to make tangible the presence of God... the reality of our dialogue in worship with Him. Whether the modern or traditional rite of Mass is used our clergy are schooled to celebrate the liturgy with dignity, paying careful attention to the rubrics (directions) and to have inwardly the right spiritual intention for each action and moment of worship.

The traditional rite of Mass, its form, intentions and manner of celebration has evolved through centuries of Christian worship and shares much in common with the worship of Christians in the Eastern tradition, expressing the unspoken but real depth of spiritual unity in Christ's Church on earth. Those used to or who remember the traditional Mass will feel most comfortable with our style of worship; those unaccustomed or new to the old Mass will, we are sure, feel something of the mystery and beauty conveyed by the traditional rite and enjoy the experience of feeling united to those who have gone before us in Faith, worshipping as they did but now, in the present. It is truly a universal experience.

People who have received the Sacrament of Confirmation in either one of the following Catholic Churches are permitted to receive the Eucharist;

• Roman Catholic Church
• Orthodox Eastern/Oriental/Canonical Churches
• Traditional Anglican (FinF parish, TAC, ACC, TCE)
• and Churches with whom the OCCE has an Intercommunion Concordat.

No disrespect is intended to Communicants of other denominations, reception of the Holy Communion signifies unity with Christ and His Body the Church; the OCCE actively prays and works towards that day when "earthly divisions shall cease".

However, we do invite all others to receive a blessing rather than the Host (Bread); to let the priest know to bless you with the Body of Christ, just cross your arms over your chest and bow your head.

It is the tradition in most congregations to receive the Host on the tongue, however reception in the hand is permitted, please indicate accordingly.

If you require a "gluten free" or "wholemeal" Host for dietary/medical reasons please let the priest or other minister know before the Mass begins! Traditionally the wine used in the Mass is alcoholic, no alternative is offered.

We strongly recommend against "intinction" (dipping the Host into the Chalice) as this has proved problematic. Our ministers of the Eucharist are trained to ensure the Host is consumed (eaten) in front of them. If you are concerned about hygiene e.g. you have a cold, we recommend only receiving the Host.

The OCCE encourages Baptised persons not already Confirmed members of any particular church to enquire with us about receiving Confirmation and becoming a Catholic Christian.

You may observe members of our congregations making certain gestures while at prayer and during the course of the Mass. The following is a guide:

• Genuflection (bending of the knee): this is to show respect to the Presence of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament and is directed either to where the Sacrament is reserved or after the Consecration of the bread and wine at the Altar;
• Sign of the Cross: the right hand traces the sign of the Cross, symbol of our Faith, from the head to the chest and then from the left to the right shoulders across the chest. The sign is always made at the beginning of private prayer or public worship and at various other times during the liturgy to represent the Trinity, the Passion or blessing;
• Striking the chest: this is a sign of repentance and is used during the Confession and at the words "have mercy upon us" in the Gloria and the Agnus Dei (Lamb of God);
• Bowing the head: this is always done at the mention of the Holy Name of Jesus, the Saint of the Day, the Blessed Virgin Mary or the Trinity as a mark of respect;
• Bowing to the priest: this is a mark of respect not to the person of the priest but to Christ whom the priest represents as the celebrant of the Mass (alter Christus);
• Lighting Candles: lighting a candle before a statue or other sacred image is to leave a token in thanksgiving for the prayers one has made.